# 2   What if? Experiments and adaptations

What is it that we’ve done in the previous tutorial? Put abstractly, we’ve trained a network to take in images and output a continuous numerical value.

In the process, we’ve made decisions all the time – what, and how many, layers to use; how to calculate the loss; what optimization algorithm to apply; how long to train; and more. We can’t go into all of them here, and we can’t go into great detail. But the good thing is: With deep learning, you can always experiment and find out. (In fact, more often than not, experiment and find out is the only way to find out!)

So this page is basically an invitation to try out things for yourself.

# What if … we were working with a different kind of data – not images?

With deep learning, the type of input data decides the type of architecture we use. Or architectures. (Quick note: By architecture, I mean something more like a family than a specific model. For example, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) would be one; or Long Short-Term Memory model (LSTM); or Transformer.)

Sometimes there are several established architectures for a problem; sometimes there’s one most prominent family. Even in the latter case though, there is no rule you have to use it.

For example, take our scatterplot images. The canonical architecture in image recognition are CNNs. But, you could still work on image data using nothing but linear layers. Depending on the task, this may or may not work so well.

So why not give it a try? If you want to try this, there are three places you have to modify: the dataset, the model, and the line that calculate the loss.

The model’s first linear layer is going to deal with the image input. Being a linear layer, it will want to be presented with a flat structure of numbers. So where the previous dataset took two-dimensional inputs and added an additional channels dimension, the new one, on the contrary, is flattening the 2d matrix into a 1-d vector:

crop_axes <- function(img) transform_crop(img, top = 0, left = 21, height = 131, width = 130)

root <- file.path(tempdir(), "correlation")

# change valid_ds and test_ds analogously
train_ds <- guess_the_correlation_dataset(
# where to unpack
root = root,
transform = function(img) crop_axes(img) %>% torch_flatten(),
# don't take all data, but just the indices we pass in
indexes = train_indices,
)


The model now consists of all linear layers:

torch_manual_seed(777)

net <- nn_module(

"corr-cnn",

initialize = function() {

self$fc1 <- nn_linear(in_features = 130 * 130, out_features = 128) self$fc2 <- nn_linear(in_features = 128, out_features = 256)
self$fc3 <- nn_linear(in_features = 256, out_features = 1) }, forward = function(x) { x %>% self$fc1() %>%
nnf_relu() %>%

self$fc2() %>% nnf_relu() %>% self$fc3()
}
)

model <- net()


In the line computing the loss, we now want to add a singleton dimension to the target at the end instead of in front:

# analogously for valid_batch and test_batch
train_batch <- function(b) {

optimizer$zero_grad() # get predictions output <- model(b$x)

# calculate loss
loss <- nnf_mse_loss(output, b$y$unsqueeze(2))

loss$backward() # have gradients get applied optimizer$step()

loss$item() }  Compared to the convnet, how well does this work? You will find it performs a lot worse. In a way, this is no surprise – it’s not for nothing that we use convolutional architectures with images. However, the extent to which a convnet outperforms a linear model is still input- and task-dependent. Were you to run an analogous comparison for MNIST digit classification (the mnist_dataset() that comes with torch) you’d find that a linear model is able to achieve sensible results. # What if … we wanted to classify the images, not predict a continuous target? Assume we had the same input data as before, but now we just care if there’s a substantial correlation or not. Let’s say we’re interested in whether its magnitude is below or above 0.5. This time, we only have to make modifications in two places . The dataset now binarizes the target according to our new requirements, passing in a target_transform in addition to the transform destined for the image: add_channel_dim <- function(img) img$unsqueeze(1)
crop_axes <- function(img) transform_crop(img, top = 0, left = 21, height = 131, width = 130)
binarize <- function(tensor) torch_round(torch_abs(tensor))

root <- file.path(tempfile(), "correlation")

# same for validation set and test set
train_ds <- guess_the_correlation_dataset(
# where to unpack
root = root,
transform = function(img) crop_axes(img) %>% add_channel_dim(),
# binarize target data
target_transform = binarize,
# don't take all data, but just the indices we pass in
indexes = train_indices,
)


Now that we want the network to output a 0 or a 1 instead of a continuous value, we need to use a different loss function. nnf_binary_cross_entropy_with_logits() takes the output, computes the log, and calculates cross entropy between that and the targets. (If you’re thinking, “where is the sigmoid, shouldn’t we have had the network apply a sigmoid activation in the end?”, – it’s not needed because of that taking-the-log step in the loss function itself.)

# same for validation and test
train_batch <- function(b) {

optimizer$zero_grad() # get predictions output <- model(b$x)

# calculate loss
loss <- nnf_binary_cross_entropy_with_logits(output, b$y$unsqueeze(2))

loss$backward() # have gradients get applied optimizer$step()

loss$item() }  And again, loss decreases. But now that we’re using cross entropy instead of mean squared error, it is a lot more difficult to get an impression how well this really works! To find out, why don’t you modify the testing loop to compute accuracy in addition to the loss? model$eval()

batch_size <- 64

test_dl <- dataloader(test_ds, batch_size, drop_last = TRUE)

test_batch <- function(b) {

output <- model(b$x) loss <- nnf_binary_cross_entropy_with_logits(output, b$y$unsqueeze(2)) test_losses <<- c(test_losses, loss$item())

prob <- torch_sigmoid(output)
class_ <- torch_round(prob)
correct <- (torch_sum(class_ == b$y$unsqueeze(2)))
test_accuracy <<- c(test_accuracy, correct$item()/batch_size) } test_losses <- c() test_accuracy <- c() for (b in enumerate(test_dl)) { test_batch(b) } mean(test_losses) mean(test_accuracy)  # What if … we made changes to the optimization routine? Thankfully, torch takes care of all gradient computations for us, and unless we’re implementing custom operations, we don’t normally need to think about this. However, the way these gradients are being made use of is something we can influence. Optimizers differ in how they compute weight updates, and choosing a different algorithm may make a significant difference. Truth be told, though, this is mostly a matter of experimentation. The Adam algorithm used here is among the most-established ones; however you could try a few others for comparison: for example, SGD or RMSProp. In addition to trying different optimizers, you can experiment with how they’re configured. Different optimizers have different tuning knobs, but most of them have one in common: the learning rate, a parameter indicating how big a step to take in optimization. Change the learning rate to a higher or lower value and find out how this affects optimization performance. Speaking of learning rates, torch has learning rate schedulers that allow you to change learning rates over time. For example, lr_step() allows you to shrink it, by some degree, every configurable number of steps. If you’re interested in pursuing this topic, a current best-practice approach to handling learning rates is illustrated in this post. # What if … we made the network bigger or trained it for a longer time? If you make a network “bigger”, increasing the number of parameters (for a linear layer, output_features, for a convolutional one, channels), in theory it gets more powerful. Analogously, if you give it more time to train, it may arrive at better results. However, depending on the task, you may or may not see improvements – again, the only way to know is to try. And there is something else to think about. If something you do improves performance on the training set, does it generalize to the test set? As in machine learning in general, in deep learning one needs to be wary of overfitting. But what are countermeasures you could take? Before thinking of anything technical, you’d always want to think through what you know about the data and the underlying context. Analytically, what could cause the training and the test data to come from different distributions? Is there a way to have these distributions become more similar? The next thing, then, is not quite technical either. If there’s no compelling reason to assume that the test data will be systematically different, it’s just: the more data the better. This is why in our example task, we don’t see much overfitting – the dataset is gigantic (and we’ve been using but a tiny fraction!). If getting more data is not an option, we can add regularization. In deep learning, the most popular ways of doing this are dropout and batch normalization. Dropout adds random noise by stochastically removing units during training, making the net more robust to presence/absence of individual features. In our example, you could add dropout as follows. (Here p passed to nnf_dropout() is the dropout probability. Not surprisingly, this, again, is a hyperparameter you’ll want to experiment with.) net <- nn_module( "corr-cnn", initialize = function() { self$conv1 <- nn_conv2d(in_channels = 1, out_channels = 32, kernel_size = 3)
self$conv2 <- nn_conv2d(in_channels = 32, out_channels = 64, kernel_size = 3) self$conv3 <- nn_conv2d(in_channels = 64, out_channels = 128, kernel_size = 3)

self$fc1 <- nn_linear(in_features = 14 * 14 * 128, out_features = 128) self$fc2 <- nn_linear(in_features = 128, out_features = 1)

},

forward = function(x) {

x %>%
self$conv1() %>% nnf_relu() %>% nnf_avg_pool2d(2) %>% nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>% self$conv2() %>%
nnf_relu() %>%
nnf_avg_pool2d(2) %>%
nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>%

self$conv3() %>% nnf_relu() %>% nnf_avg_pool2d(2) %>% nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>% torch_flatten(start_dim = 2) %>% self$fc1() %>%
nnf_relu() %>%
nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>%

self$fc2() } )  Batch normalization is less well understood theoretically, but can be extremely effective in some cases. Besides acting as a regularizer, it also stabilizes training and may allow for using higher learning rates. With batch normalization, our network could look like this: net <- nn_module( "corr-cnn", initialize = function() { self$conv1 <- nn_conv2d(in_channels = 1, out_channels = 32, kernel_size = 3)
self$conv2 <- nn_conv2d(in_channels = 32, out_channels = 64, kernel_size = 3) self$conv3 <- nn_conv2d(in_channels = 64, out_channels = 128, kernel_size = 3)

self$bn1 <- nn_batch_norm2d(num_features = 32) self$bn2 <- nn_batch_norm2d(num_features = 64)
self$bn3 <- nn_batch_norm2d(num_features = 128) self$bn4 <- nn_batch_norm1d(num_features = 128)

self$fc1 <- nn_linear(in_features = 14 * 14 * 128, out_features = 128) self$fc2 <- nn_linear(in_features = 128, out_features = 1)

},

forward = function(x) {

x %>%
self$conv1() %>% nnf_relu() %>% self$bn1() %>%
nnf_avg_pool2d(2) %>%
nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>%

self$conv2() %>% nnf_relu() %>% self$bn2() %>%
nnf_avg_pool2d(2) %>%
nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>%

self$conv3() %>% nnf_relu() %>% self$bn3() %>%
nnf_avg_pool2d(2) %>%
nnf_dropout(p = 0.2) %>%

torch_flatten(start_dim = 2) %>%
self$fc1() %>% nnf_relu() %>% self$bn4() %>%

self$fc2() } )  Once you’re found that a regularizing measure works – meaning, performance on the validation set is similar to that on the training set, or maybe even better – you can go back and add more capacity to the network: add more layers, train for a longer time, etc. Maybe you’ll arrive at better performance overall! # What if … we wanted to train on GPU? Let’s end this section on a quite different question: If you have access to a GPU, you’ll probably want to use it – but how? In torch , tensors live on devices. Most often, this will be either the CPU or a GPU. Operations may be executed on different devices, and tensors can be moved between them. To successfully execute an operation that takes as input two tensors – a matrix multiplication, say – both need to be present on the same device. What this means in practice is that model parameters and input data have to either both exist on the CPU or both on the GPU. For the model, a one-liner moves all its parameters: model <- net() model <- model$to(device = "cuda")


The data we just move “on demand”, that is:

• when we’re passing the input to the model

• when we compute the loss (assuming the predictions are CUDA tensors, as they will be when returned by a GPU-resident model)

# analogously for validation and test loops

train_batch <- function(b) {

optimizer$zero_grad() # get predictions output <- model(b$x$to(device = "cuda")) # calculate loss loss <- nnf_mse_loss(output, b$y$unsqueeze(2)$to(device = "cuda"))

loss$backward() # have gradients get applied optimizer$step()